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About the Editors xix 1 Natural and Synthetic Fibers for Hybrid Composites 1 Brijesh Gangil, Lalit Ranakoti, Shashikant Verma, Tej Singh, and Sandeep Kumar 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Natural Fibers 2 1.3 Microstructure of Natural Fibers 3 1.4 Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites 3 1.4.1 Synthetic Fibers 7 1.4.2 Glass Fibers 8 1.4.3 Carbon Fibers 8 1.4.4 Kevlar or Aramid Fibers 9 1.4.5 Comparison Between Natural and Synthetic Fibers 9 1.5 Hybrid Fiber-Based Polymer Composites 10 1.5.1 Applications 11 1.6 Conclusion 12 References 13 2 Effect of Process Engineering on the Performance of Hybrid Fiber Composites 17 Madhu Puttegowda, Yashas Gowda Thyavihalli Girijappa, Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa, Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai, and Suchart Siengchin 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Fibers 18 2.3 Polymers 20 2.4 Hybrid Polymer Composites 21 2.5 Fiber Extraction Methods 22 2.6 Fiber Treatments 22 2.7 Processing Methods of Hybrid Composites 24 2.7.1 Pultrusion 24 2.7.2 Hand Lay-up/Wet Lay-up 25 2.7.3 Vacuum Bagging 25 2.7.4 Filament Winding 26 2.7.5 Resin Transfer Molding 27 2.7.6 Compression Molding 27 2.7.7 Injection Molding 28 2.8 Application of Each Hybrid Polymer Composite Processing Methods 29 2.8.1 Pultrusion 29 2.8.2 Hand Lay-up 29 2.8.3 Vacuum Bagging 31 2.8.4 Filament Winding 31 2.8.5 Resin Transfer Molding 31 2.8.6 Compression Molding 31 2.8.7 Injection Molding 32 2.9 Conclusion 32 References 32 3 Mechanical and Physical Test of Hybrid Fiber Composites 41 Mohit Hemath, Arul Mozhi Selvan Varadhappan, Hemath Kumar Govindarajulu, Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa, Suchart Siengchin, and Harinandan Kumar 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Materials and Methods 44 3.2.1 Materials 44 3.2.2 Extraction of Sugarcane Nanocellulose Fiber (SNCF) 44 3.2.3 Synthesis of Al-SiC Nanoparticles 44 3.2.4 Fabrication of SNCF/Al-SiC Vinyl Ester Nanocomposites 44 3.2.5 Design of Experiments (DOE) 45 3.2.6 Development of Experimental Models and Optimization 45 3.2.7 Characterization on SNCF/Al-SiC Vinyl Ester Hybrid Nanocomposites 46 3.2.7.1 FTIR Spectra and XRD Curves 46 3.2.7.2 Physical Properties 47 3.2.7.3 Mechanical Properties 47 3.2.7.4 Viscoelastic Properties 48 3.2.7.5 Morphological Properties 48 3.3 Results and Discussion 48 3.3.1 Optimization 48 3.3.2 Maximization 52 3.3.3 FTIR and XRD Curves 54 3.3.4 Mechanical Properties 55 3.3.4.1 Flexural Properties 55 3.3.4.2 Morphological Properties 57 3.3.4.3 Compression Properties 58 3.3.4.4 Tensile Properties 58 3.3.5 Viscoelastic Properties 58 3.3.5.1 Storage Modulus 58 3.3.5.2 Loss Modulus 60 3.3.5.3 Damping Factor 60 3.3.5.4 Glass Transition Temperature 60 3.3.6 Impact Strength 61 3.3.7 Vickers Hardness 62 3.3.8 Physical Properties 62 3.4 Conclusion 63 References 63 4 Experimental Investigations in the Drilling of Hybrid Fiber Composites 69 Sathish Kumar Palaniappan, Samir Kumar Pal, Rajasekar Rathanasamy, Gobinath Velu Kaliyannan, and Moganapriya Chinnasamy 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 Characteristics of Drilling 70 4.3 Hybrid Fiber Composites 70 4.4 Machining Limitation on Hybrid Fiber Composite Drilling 71 4.5 Investigation of Hybrid Fiber Composites Drilling 71 4.5.1 Condition for Hybrid Composites Drill 72 4.5.2 Factors Affecting Drilling 72 4.5.3 Drilling of GF-Reinforced Hybrid Composites 73 4.5.4 Survey on NF-Reinforced Hybrid Composites Drilling 75 4.5.5 Drilling of CF Reinforced Hybrid Composites 77 4.6 Conclusion 79 References 79 5 Fracture Analysis on Silk and Glass Fiber-Reinforced Hybrid Composites 87 Gangaplara Basavarajappa Manjunatha and Kurki Nagaraja Bharath 5.1 Introduction 87 5.2 Materials and Methods 88 5.2.1 Materials and Specimen Preparation 88 5.2.2 Compact Tension Shear (CTS) Test 90 5.2.3 Single-Edge Notched Bend (SENB) 90 5.3 Results and Discussion 92 5.3.1 Compact Tension Shear (CTS) Test 92 5.3.2 Mode I, Mode II, and Mixed Mode Fracture Toughness for Different Loading Angle 93 5.3.3 Single-Edge Notched Bend (SENB) 93 5.3.4 Fracture Toughness of SENB Test 95 5.4 Conclusion 96 References 96 6 Failure Mechanisms of Fiber Composites 99? C?t?lin Iulian Pruncu and Maria-Luminita Scutaru 6.1 Introduction 99 6.2 Industrial Benefits and Applications 100 6.3 Materials for Reinforcing 104 6.3.1 Composites Reinforced with Continuous Fibers 104 6.3.2 Composites Reinforced with Discontinuous Fibers 105 6.3.3 Composites Reinforced with Fillers 106 6.4 Resin Type 106 6.4.1 Epoxy Resins 106 6.4.2 Formaldehyde Resins 107 6.4.3 Polyurethane Resins 107 6.4.4 Polyester Resins 108 6.4.5 Silicone Resins 108 6.5 Interfacial of Composite Structure 109 6.6 Micromechanics 110 6.6.1 Mechanical Properties 110 6.6.1.1 Coefficients of Thermal Expansion and Heat Transfer Properties 111 6.7 Short Overview of Specific Failure Modes 112 6.8 Future Perspective 113 6.9 Conclusions 114 References 114 7 Ballistic Behavior of Fiber Composites 117 Ignacio Rubio, Josue Aranda Ruiz, Marcos Rodriguez Millan, Jose Antonio Loya, and Marta Maria Moure 7.1 Introduction 117 7.2 High-Velocity Impact Test 119 7.2.1 Material 119 7.2.2 Experimental Setup 119 7.2.3 Analysis and Results 121 7.2.3.1 Ballistic Curves 121 7.2.3.2 Failure Modes 123 7.2.3.3 Back-Face Displacement 123 7.3 Computational Methods 124 7.4 Conclusions 126 References 127 8 Mechanical Behavior of Synthetic/Natural Fibers in Hybrid Composites 129 Navasingh Rajesh Jesudoss Hynes, Ramakrishnan Sankaranarayanan, Jegadeesaperumal Senthil Kumar, Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa, and Suchart Siengchin 8.1 Introduction 129 8.2 Impact Strength of Natural Fiber (Flax), Synthetic Fiber (Carbon), and Hybrid (Carbon/Flax) Composites 130 8.3 Kenaf/Aramid (Epoxy) Hybrid Composites with Different Fiber Orientation 132 8.4 Impact Strength of Carbon/Flax (Epoxy) Hybrid Composites with Different Fiber Orientation 134 8.5 Comparison of Absorbed Impact Energy of Different Hybrid Composites 135 8.6 Comparison of Strength of Natural Fiber (Ramie), Synthetic Fiber (Glass), and Hybrid (Ramie/Glass) Composites 137 8.6.1 Tensile Strength of Natural Fiber (Ramie), Synthetic Fiber (Glass), and Hybrid (Ramie/Glass) Composites 138 8.6.2 Flexural Strength of Natural Fiber (Ramie), Synthetic Fiber (Glass), and Hybrid (Ramie/Glass) Composites 139 8.6.3 Impact Strength of Natural Fiber (Ramie), Synthetic Fiber (Glass), and Hybrid (Ramie/Glass) Composites 140 8.7 Summary and Outlook 141 References 143 9 Bast Fiber-Based Polymer Composites 147 Sandeep Kumar, Brijesh Gangil, Krishan Kant Singh Mer, Manoj Kumar Gupta, and Vinay Kumar Patel 9.1 Introduction 147 9.1.1 Bast Fiber as Reinforcing Material 149 9.2 Polymer Composites Reinforced with Bast Fibers 149 9.2.1 Polymer Composites Reinforced with Flax Fibers 150 9.2.2 Polymer Composites Reinforced with Grewia Optiva Fiber 152 9.2.3 Polymer Composites Reinforced with Hemp Fiber 155 9.2.4 Polymer Composites Reinforced with Nettle Fiber 156 9.2.5 Polymer Composites Reinforced with Jute Fiber 158 9.3 Applications of Polymer Composites Reinforced with Bast Fibers 160 9.4 Conclusion 161 References 161 10 Flame-Retardant Balsa Wood/GFRP Sandwich Composites, Mechanical Evaluation, and Comparisons with Other Sandwich Composites 169 Subin Shaji George, Vivek Arjuna, Venkata Prudhvi Pallapolu, and Padmanabhan Krishnan 10.1 Introduction 169 10.2 Literature Survey 171 10.2.1 Sandwich Composite Structure and Properties 171 10.2.2 Knowledge Gained from the Literature Review 172 10.2.3 Gaps Identified from Literature Survey 172 10.2.4 Objective of the Project 173 10.2.5 Motivation 173 10.3 Methodology and Experimental Work 173 10.3.1 Hand Lay-up Procedure 173 10.3.2 Vacuum Bagging 174 10.3.3 Testing and Evaluations 175 10.3.4 Technical Specification 177 10.3.5 Design Approach Details 177 10.3.6 Codes and Standards 178 10.3.7 Fabrication Methodology 178 10.4 Results and Discussion 179 10.4.1 Compression Testing 179 10.4.1.1 Flatwise Transverse Grain Test 179 10.4.1.2 Edgewise Transverse Grain Compression 180 10.4.1.3 Edgewise Longitudinal Grain Compression 182 10.4.1.4 Discussion and Comment (Compression Test) 183 10.4.2 Three-Point Bending Test (Flexural Test) 183 10.4.2.1 Experimental Results for Three-Point Bending Test of Balsa Wood 184 10.4.2.2 Experimental Results for Three-Point Bending Test of Composite of Skin-to-Core Ratio 1 : 1 184 10.4.2.3 Experimental Results for Three-Point Bending Test of Composite of Skin-to-Core Ratio 2 : 1 184 10.4.2.4 Experimental Result for Three-Point Bending Test of Composite of Skin-to-Core Ratio 3 : 1 187 10.4.2.5 Experimental Results for Three-Point Bending Test of Composite of Skin-to-Core Ratio 4 : 1 187 10.4.2.6 Experimental Results for Three-Point Bending Test of Composite of Skin-to-Core Ratio 5 : 1 188 10.4.2.7 Mean, Minimum, and Maximum Mechanical Properties of Sandwich Composites 188 10.4.2.8 Mechanical Properties of Sandwich Composite for Different Core Materials 189 10.4.2.9 Discussion and Comments (Flexural Testing/Three-Point Bending Test) 189 10.4.3 Types and Modes of Failure During the Test on Sandwich Composites 190 10.5 Conclusions 192 10.6 Scope for Future Work 193 Acknowledgment 193 List of Symbols and Abbreviations 193 References 193 11 Biocomposites Reinforced with Animal and Regenerated Fibers 197 Manickam Ramesh, Chinnaiyan Deepa, Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa, and Suchart Siengchin 11.1 Introduction 197 11.2 Animal Fibers 198 11.2.1 Silk 199 11.2.2 Wool 200 11.2.3 Chicken Feather 201 11.3 Regenerated Fibers 202 11.3.1 Lyocell 205 11.3.2 Viscose 206 11.3.3 Regenerated Keratin Fibers 207 11.4 Industrial Applications 207 11.5 Summary and Discussion 207 11.6 Conclusions and Scope for Future Research 208 References 208 12 Effect of Glass and Banana Fiber Mat Orientation and Number Layers on Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Composites 217 T.P. Sathishkumar, S. Ramakrishnan, and P. Navaneethakrishnan 12.1 Introduction 217 12.2 Materials 220 12.3 Preparation of Composites 221 12.4 Characterization 222 12.5 Results and Discussion 224 12.5.1 Effect of Number and Orientation of Layers on Tensile Properties 224 12.5.2 Effect of Number and Orientation of Layers on Flexural Properties 225 12.5.3 Effect of Number and Orientation of Layers on Impact Properties 228 12.6 Conclusion 229 References 230 13 Characterization of Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Vinyl Ester-Based Hybrid Green Composites 233 B. Suresha, R. Hemanth, and P.A. Udaya Kumar 13.1 Introduction 233 13.2 Materials and Methods 237 13.2.1 Matrix 237 13.2.2 Reinforcements 238 13.2.2.1 Coir Fiber and Coconut Shell Powder 238 13.2.2.2 Aramid Fiber 239 13.2.3 Chemical Treatment 239 13.2.4 Fabrication of Vinyl Ester-Based Hybrid Composites 239 13.3 Characterization 240 13.3.1 Physicomechanical Characterizations 240 13.3.1.1 Hardness 240 13.3.1.2 Tensile Testing 241 13.3.1.3 Flexural Testing 241 13.3.1.4 Impact Testing 242 13.3.2 Wear Testing 242 13.3.3 Fractography Analysis Using Scanning Electron Microscope 243 13.4 Surface Treatment of Reinforcements 244 13.5 Results and Discussion 245 13.5.1 Hardness of Vinyl Ester and Their Hybrid Composites 245 13.5.2 Tensile Properties of Vinyl Ester and Their Hybrid Composites 246 13.5.2.1 Fractography Analysis 247 13.5.3 Flexural Properties of Vinyl Ester and Their Hybrid Composites 248 13.5.3.1 Fractography Analysis 248 13.5.4 Impact Strength of Vinyl Ester and Their Hybrid Composites 249 13.5.4.1 Fractography Analysis 250 13.5.5 Tribology of Vinyl Ester Hybrid Composites 251 13.5.5.1 Effect of Fiber and Filler on Coefficient of Friction 252 13.5.5.2 Effects of Sliding Distance and Applied Load on Specific Wear Rate 254 13.5.5.3 Worn Surface Morphology 256 13.6 Conclusions 260 References 260 14 Thermomechanical Characterization of Vacuum Resin Infusion-Molded Ceramic Rock-Derived Natural Wool-Reinforced Epoxy and Cashew Nut Shell Liquid-Based Composites 265 Nikunj Viramgama, Anmol Garg, Kevin Thomas, and Padmanabhan Krishnan 14.1 Introduction 265 14.1.1 Natural Fibers as a Substitute for Synthetic Fibers 265 14.1.2 Biocomposites 265 14.1.3 Rockwool Fibers 266 14.1.4 Composites with Rockwool Fiber as Reinforcement 266 14.1.5 Resin or Matrix Materials 267 14.1.6 Gaps in the Literature Review 267 14.2 Methodology and Approach 267 14.2.1 Fabrication and Experimentation 268 14.3 Results and Discussion 270 14.3.1 Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS of Rockwool) 270 14.3.2 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA of Rockwool) 272 14.3.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry of Rockwool 272 14.3.4 Volume Fraction of Fabricated Composite 273 14.3.4.1 Volume Fraction of Rockwool for Epoxy-Based Composite 273 14.3.4.2 Volume Fraction of Rockwool Fiber for CNSL Composite 274 14.3.5 Epoxy-Based Composite Tests and Analyses 274 14.3.5.1 Tensile Test 274 14.3.5.2 Compression Test 280 14.3.5.3 Flexure Test 284 14.3.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis of Epoxy-Based Composites 289 14.3.7 Rockwool/CNSL Composite Test Results 294 14.3.7.1 Tensile Test Results 294 14.3.7.2 Compression Test Results 297 14.3.7.3 Flexure Test Results 299 14.3.8 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis of the CNSL-Based Composite 301 14.3.9 Further Scope of Research 304 Acknowledgments 305 References 305 15 Hydrogel Scaffold-Based Fiber Composites for Engineering Applications 307 Ikram Ahmad, Jose Heriberto Oliveira do Nascimento, Sobia Tabassum, Amna Mumtaz, Sadia Khalid, and Awais Ahmad 15.1 Introduction 307 15.1.1 Hydrogels 307 15.1.2 Hydrogels as Compared to Gels 308 15.1.3 Classification of Hydrogels 308 15.1.3.1 Hydrogel Origin 308 15.1.3.2 Hydrogel Durability 308 15.1.3.3 Hydrogel Response to Environmental Stimuli 309 15.1.4 Methods of Preparation of Hydrogels 309 15.1.4.1 Free Radical Polymerization 309 15.1.4.2 Irradiation Cross-linking of Hydrogel Polymeric Precursors 310 15.1.4.3 Chemical Cross-linking of Hydrogel Polymeric Precursors 310 15.1.4.4 Physical Cross-linking of Hydrogel Polymeric Precursors 310 15.1.5 Scaffold 311 15.1.5.1 Biocompatibility 312 15.1.5.2 Biodegradability 312 15.1.5.3 Mechanical Properties 312 15.1.5.4 Structure 312 15.1.5.5 Nature 313 15.2 Potential Applications of Hydrogels as Scaffold in Biomedical Application 313 15.2.1 Hydrogel and Tissue Engineering 314 15.2.2 Hydrogels as Carriers for Cell Transplantation 314 15.2.3 Hydrogels as a Barrier Against Rest Enosis 314 15.2.4 Hydrogels as Drug Depots 315 15.3 Design Criteria for Hydrogel Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering 315 15.3.1 Biodegradation 316 15.3.2 Biocompatibility 316 15.3.3 Pore Size and Porosity Extent 317 15.3.4 Mechanical Characteristics 317 15.3.5 Surface Characteristics 317 15.3.6 Vascularization 318 15.4 Hydrogel Scaffold: A Main Tool for Tissue Engineering 318 15.4.1 Fabrication of Hydrogel Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 318 15.4.1.1 Emulsification 318 15.4.2 Lyophilization 319 15.4.2.1 Emulsification Lyophilization 320 15.4.2.2 Solvent Casting Leaching 320 15.4.2.3 Gas Foaming Leaching 320 15.4.2.4 Photolithography 321 15.4.2.5 Electrospinning 321 15.4.2.6 Microfluidics 322 15.4.2.7 Micromolding 322 15.4.2.8 Three-Dimensional Organ/Tissue Printing 323 15.5 Hydrogel Scaffolds for Cardiac Tissue Engineering 324 15.6 Hydrogel Scaffold Fabrication for Skin Regeneration 326 15.6.1 Molding Scaffolds 326 15.6.2 Nanofiber Fabrication Scaffolds 326 15.6.3 Three-Dimensional (3D) Printing 327 15.7 Osteochondral Tissue Regeneration 327 15.7.1 Single-Layer Gelatinous Scaffolds 327 15.7.2 Multilayer Gelatinous Scaffolds 328 15.7.3 Gel/Fiber Scaffolds 329 15.7.4 Fabrication of Gradient Hydrogels 330 15.7.5 Fabrication of Gradient Hydrogel/Fiber Composites 331 15.8 Biopolymer-Based Hydrogel Systems 332 15.8.1 Polysaccharide Hydrogels as Scaffolds 332 15.8.1.1 Chondroitin Sulfate 332 15.8.1.2 Hyaluronic Acid 333 15.8.1.3 Chitosan 334 15.8.1.4 Cellulose Derivatives 335 15.8.1.5 Alginate 336 15.8.1.6 Collagen 337 15.8.1.7 Gelatin 337 15.8.1.8 Elastin 339 15.8.1.9 Fibroin 339 15.9 Summary 340 References 340 16 Experimental Analysis of Styrene, Particle Size, and Fiber Content in the Mechanical Properties of Sisal Fiber Powder Composites 351 Katia Melo, Thiago Santos, Caroliny Santos, Rubens Fonseca, Nestor Dantas, and Marcos Aquino 16.1 Introduction 351 16.2 Materials and Methods 352 16.3 Results and Discussion 353 16.4 Conclusions 364 Acknowledgments 364 References 365 17 Influence of Fiber Content in the Water Absorption and Mechanical Properties of Sisal Fiber Powder Composites 369 Katia Melo, Thiago Santos, Caroliny Santos, Rubens Fonseca, Nestor Dantas, and Marcos Aquino 17.1 Introduction 369 17.2 Materials and Methods 370 17.2.1 Mechanical Test 370 17.2.2 Water Absorption 370 17.3 Results and Discussion 371 17.4 Conclusions 376 Acknowledgments 377 References 377 18 Recent Advances of Hybrid Fiber Composites for Various Applications 381 Praveen Kumar Alagesan 18.1 Introduction 381 18.2 What is a Hybrid Composite? 384 18.3 Hybrid Biocomposites 386 18.4 Hybrid Nanobiocomposites 388 18.5 Potential Applications of Hybrid Composites in Various Applications 389 18.5.1 Aerospace Applications 389 18.5.2 Automotive Applications 391 18.5.3 Ballistic Applications 394 18.5.4 Impact Loading Applications 395 18.6 Challenges, Prospects, and Future Trends 397 18.7 Conclusions 398 Acknowledgments 398 References 398 Index 405

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