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CHAPTER 1: PROTECTIVE RELAYING FUNDAMENTALS; 1.1 General Background; 1.2 Zones of Protection; 1.3 Requirements of Protection System; 1.4 Unit and Non-unit Protection; 1.5 Primary and Back-up Protection; 1.6 Historical Developmentotection; 1.7 Classification of Protective Relays; 1.7 Electromechnical (Electromagnetic) Relays; 1.7.1 Thermal Relayl (Electromagnetic) Relays; 1.7.2 Attracted Armature Relay; 1.7. 3Induction Relays; 1.7.3.1 Induction Disc Relay; 1.7.3.2 Induction Cup Relay; 1.7.4 Balance Beam Relay; 1.7.5 Universal Torque Equation; 1.8 Solid State Relays; 1.8.1 Introduction; 1.8.2 Comparison between Static and Electromechanical Relays; 1.8.3 Classification of Static Relays; 1.8.4 Generalized Static Time-Overcurrent Relays; 1.9 Digital Relaying; 1.9.1 Merits and Demerits of Digital Relay; 1.9.2 Generalized Block Diagram of Digital Relay; 1.9.3 Sampling and Data Window; 1.10 Adaptive Relaying; 1.11 Tripping Mechanism of Relay; 1.12 Different Relay Algorithms; 1.12.1 Algorithms assuming pure sinusoidal relaying signal; 1.12.2 Algorithms based on solution of system differential equations; 1.12.3 Algorithms Applicable to Distorted Relaying Signals; 1.12.3.1 Fourier Analysis based Algorithm; 1.12.3.2 Walsh function technique; 1.12.3.3 Least Error Square Technique; 1.13 Summary; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; References; CHAPTER 2: CURRENT BASED RELAYING SCHEME FOR TRANSMISSION LINE; 2.1 Introduction; 2.2 Various Types of Transmission Line Faults; 2.3 Overcurrent Protection of Transmission Line; 2.3.1 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay; 2.3.2 Definite Time Overcurrent Relay; 2.3.3 Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay; 2.3.4 Inverse Definite Minimum Time Overcurrent Relay; 2.4 Application of Overcurrent Relay Using Different Relay Characteristics; 2.4.1 Instantaneous Relays; 2.4.2 Definite Time Relays; 2.4.3 Inverse Time Overcurrent Relays; 2.5 Phase and Ground Relays; 2.5.1 Setting Rules for Phase and Ground Relays; 2.5.2 Scheme Used In Practice; 2.6 Directional Protectiononal Protection; 2.6.1 Necessity of Directional Protection Relays; 2.6.2 Directional Relay Characteristics; 2.6.3 Polarizing Quantity; 2.6.4 Directional Ground-Fault Relays; 2.6.5 Directional over Current Protection Scheme for a Transmission Line (67); 2.7 Modern Digital/Numerical Overcurrent & Earth Fault Relay; 2.8 Over Current Relay Coordination in an Interconnected Power System; 2.8.1 Introduction; 2.8.2 LINKNET Structure; 2.8.3 Determination of Primary/Back-Up Relay Pairs; 2.9 Examples; 2.10 Summery; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; Unsolved Example; References; CHAPTER 3: PILOT INDEPENDENT DISTANCE RELAYING SCHEME; 3.1 Introduction; 3.2 Transmission Line Protection; 3.3 Distance Protection; 3.3.1 Fault Distance Measurement; 3.3.2 Stepped Distance Characteristics; 3.4 Reach of Distance Relay; 3.5 Selection of Measuring Unit; 3.6 Current and Voltage Connections; 3.6.1 Connection for Phase-fault Relays; 3.6.2 Connection for Earth-fault Relays; 3.7 Distance Protection using Static Comparators; 3.7.1 Comparator for Impedance Relay; 3.8 Problems & Remedies in Distance Protection; 3.8.1 Close-in fault; 3.8.2 Fault Resistance; 3.8.3 Remote Infeed; 3.8.4 Mutual Coupling; 3.8.5 Series Compensated Transmission Lines; 3.8.6 Power Swing; 3.8.7 Overload; 3.8.8 Transient Condition; 3.9 Examples on Setting of Distance Protection; 3.10 Symmetrical Component Based Distance Relay; 3.11 Digital Distance Relaying Scheme; 3.12 Summery; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; Examples; References; CHAPTER 4: PILOT RELAYING SCHEME FOR TRANSMISSION LINE; 4.1 Introduction; 4.2 Pilot Protection System; 4.3 Types of Pilot Communications; 4.3.1 Pilot Communication Based on Signal; 4.3.2 Pilot Communication Based on Frequency; 4.4 Wire Pilot Relaying Scheme; 4.4.1 Circulating Current Based Wire Plot Relaying Scheme.; 4.4.2 Voltage Balance Type Wire Pilot Relaying Scheme.; 4.5 Carrier Current Protection Scheme; 4.5.1 Phase Comparison Scheme; 4.5.2 Directional Comparison Scheme; 4.6 Blocking and Unblocking Carrier aided Distance Scheme; 4.6.1 Carrier Blocking Scheme; 4.6.2 Carrier Unblocking Scheme; 4.7 Transfer Tripping Carrier aided Distance Scheme; 4.7.1 Under Reach Transfer Tripping Scheme; 4.7.2 Over Reach Transfer Tripping Scheme; 4.8 Summery; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; References; CHAPTER 5: GENERATOR PROTECTION; 5.1 Introduction; 5.2 Differential protection; 5.2.1 Mertz-Price Differential Protection; 5.2.2 High Impedance Differential Protection; 5.2.3 Biased Percentage differential protection; 5.2.4 Relay Setting; 5.3 Stator earth fault protection; 5.3.1 Stator Earth Fault protection for Low Impedance grounding; 5.3.2 Stator Earth Fault protection for high Impedance grounding; 5.4 Stator winding Turn to Turn Fault Protection; 5.5 Rotor Ground Fault Protectionault Protection; 5.6 Loss of Excitation (Field Failure) Protection; 5.7 Negative Phase Sequence (Unbalance Loading) Protection; 5.8 Out of Step Protection; 5.9 Reverse power Protection; 5.10 Abnormal Frequency and Voltage Protection; 5.10.1 Over Frequency Protection; 5.10.2 Under Frequency Protection; 5.10.3 Over Voltage Protection; 5.10.4 Under Voltage Protection; 5.10.5 Voltage Dependant Overcurrent Protection; 5.10.6 Neutral Voltage Displacement Protection; 5.10.7 Protection against Unintentional Energization at Standstill; 5.10.8 Thermal Protection Using RTD; 5.11 Numerical Protection of Generator; 5.11.1 Functions of Modern Numerical/Digital Generator Protection Relay; 5.11.2 Numerical Differential Protection of Generator; 5.12 Summary; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; Examples; References; CHAPTER 6: TRANSFORMER PROTECTION; 6.1 Introduction; 6.2 Abnormal Condition in Transformer; 6.2.1 Magnetizing Inrush; 6.2.2 Over Fluxing; 6.2.3 Low Oil Level in Transformer Tank; 6.3 Non Electrical Protection; 6.3.1 Buchholz Relay; 6.3.2 Sudden Pressure Relay (SPR); 6.3.3 Oil and Winding Temperature Relay; 6.4 Overcurrent Protection; 6.4.1 Overcurrent Relay with HRU Supplement; 6.5 Earth Fault Protection; 6.6 Inter-turn Fault; 6.7 Differential Protection; 6.7.1 Basic Considerations for Transformer Differential Protection; 6.7.2 Stabilizing Of Differential Protection during Magnetizing Inrush Conditions; 6.7.2.1 Time Delay; 6.7.2.2 Harmonics Restraint; 6.8 Digital/Numerical Protection of Transformer; 6.8.1 Numerical Relay; 6.8.2 Feature of Digital/ Numerical Relays; 6.9 Summary; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; Unsolved Example; Reference of Books; CHAPTER 7: INDUCTION MOTOR PROTECTION; 7.1 Introduction; 7.2 Faults/Abnormal Conditions in Induction Motor; 7.3 Protection Schemes of Induction Motor; 7.3.1 Thermal Overload Protection (49); 7.3.2 Protection against Unbalance Currents (46); 7.3.3 Protection against Phase Reversal; 7.3.4 Phase Fault Protection (87); 7.3.5 Earth Fault Protection (50N); 7.3.6 Stalling Protection (Locked Rotor) (51); 7.3.7 Loss of Load Protection; 7.3.8 Under Voltage (27); 7.4 Numerical Protection of Induction Motor; 7.5 Examples; 7.6 Summery; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; Unsolved Example; References; CHAPTER 8: PROTECTION OF BUSBAR; 8.1 Introduction; 8.2 Busbar Arrangements; 8.2.1 Single Busbar Arrangement; 8.2.2 Single Busbar Arrangement With Sectionalize; 8.2.3 Main and Transfer Bus-Bar Arrangement; 8.2.4 Double Bus-Bar Arrangement; 8.2.5 One and Half Breaker Arrangement; 8.3 Busbar Faults and Protection Requirement; 8.4 Impact of CT Saturation on Busbar Protection; 8.4.1 Issue; 8.4.2 CT Saturation; 8.4.3 Ratio Mismatch; 8.4.4 Remedies; 8.5 Classification of Busbar Protection Schemes; 8.5.1 Directional Comparison Protection Scheme; 8.5.2 Differential Protection Scheme; 8.5.2.1 Circulating Current Differential Protection; 8.5.2.2 Biased Percentage Differential Protection; 8.5.3 High Impedance Voltage Differential Protection; 8.5.4 Protection Using Linear Couplers; 8.6 Digital/Numerical Protection of Busbar; 8.6.1 Decentralized Busbar Protection; 8.6.2 Centralized Busbar Protection; 8.7 Recent Trends in Busbar Protection; 8.8 Commercially Used Technique; 8.9 Exercise; Summary; Multiple Choice Questions; Reference; CHAPTER 9: CURRENT AND POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER FOR RELAYING SCHEMES; 9.1 Introduction; 9.2 Operating Principle of CT and PT; 9.3 Construction and Performance of CT; 9.3.1 Equivalent Circuit and Vector Diagram of CT; 9.3.2 Magnetization (Excitation) Curves; 9.3.3 CT Saturation Characteristic; 9.3.4 CT Burden; 9.3.5 CT Accuracy; 9.3.6 Open Circuit CT Secondary Voltage; 9.4 Performance of Potential Transformer (PT); 9.4.1 Equivalent Circuit of Electromagnetic type PT; 9.4.2 Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CVT); 9.4.2.1 Equivalent Circuit of a CVT; 9.4.2.2 CVT Transient Response and Ferro Resonance; 9.5 Specification of CT & PT; 9.5.1 Specification of CT; 9.5.2 Specification of PT; 9.6 Summary; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; References; CHAPTER 10: PROTECTION AGAINST TRANSIENTS AND SURGES; 10.1 Introduction; 10.2 Sources of Transients or Surges in EHV Line; 10.2.1 Switching of Transmission Line; 10.2.2 Switching of Capacitor Bank; 10.2.3 Switching of Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CCVT); 10.2.4 Switching of Reactor; 10.2.5 Arcing Ground; 10.2.6 Lightning Strokes; 10.3 Overvoltage Phenomenon due to Lightning and Switching; 10.3.1 Surges and Travelling Waves; 10.3.2 Wave Propagation on Transmission Line; 10.3.3 Reflection and Attenuation; 10.3.3.1 Reflection; 10.3.3.2 Attenuation of Transients; 10.3.3.2.1 Attenuation of Transients Using Filter; 10.3.3.2.2 Attenuation of Transients Using Isolation Transformer; 10.4 Neutral Grounding; 10.4.1 Effects of Ungrounded Neutral on System Performance; 10.4.2 Methods of Neutral Grounding; 10.4.2.1 Solid Grounding; 10.4.2.2 Resistance Grounding; 10.4.2.3 Reactance Grounding; 10.4.2.4 Resonant Grounding; 10.4.3 Grounding Practices; 10.5 Protection against Transients and Surges; 10.5.1 Protection against Lightning; 10.5.1.1 Earthing Screen (Overhead Shielding); 10.5.1.2 Overhead Ground Wires; 10.5.1.3 Surge Modifier or Absorber; 10.5.1.4 Lightning Arrester (Surge Diverter); 10.6 Types of Lightning Arresters; 10.6.1 Rod Gap Arrester; 10.6.2 Horn Gap Arrester; 10.6.3 Multi Gap Arrester; 10.6.4 Expulsion Type Arrester; 10.6.5 Valve Type Arrester; 10.6.5.1 Silicon Carbide (SiC) Lightning Arrester; 10.6.5.2 Metal Oxide (MO) Lightning Arrester; 10.6.6 Selection Procedure for Lightning/Surge Arresters; 10.6.7 Common Ratings of Lightning/Surge Arresters; 10.7 Concepts of Basic Insulation Level; 10.7.1 Selection of Basic Insulation Level (BIL); 10.7.2 Impulse Ratio; 10.7.3 Standard Impulse Test Voltage; 10.7.4 Volt-Time Characteristic; 10.8 Insulation Coordination; 10.9 Summary; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; References; CHAPTER 11: AUTORECLOSING AND SYNCHRONIZING; 11.1 Introduction; 11.2 History of autoreclosing; 11.3 Advantages of Autoreclosing; 11.4 Classification of autoreclosing Relay; 11.4.1 Autoreclosing based on number of phases; 11.4.2 Autoreclosing based on number of attempts; 11.4.3 Autoreclosing based on speed; 11.5 Sequence of Events of a Typical Single-shot Autoreclosing Scheme; 11.6 Factors to be considered during Reclosing; 11.6.1 Choice of zone in case of distance relay; 11.6.2 Dead time/ Deionizing time; 11.6.3 Reclaim Time; 11.6.4 Instantaneous Lock out; 11.6.5 Intermediate Lock Out; 11.6.6 Breaker supervision function; 11.7 Synchronism Check; 11.7.1 Phasing Voltage Method; 11.7.2 Angular Method; 11.8 Automatic Synchronizing; 11.9 Summary; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; References; CHAPTER 12: SYSTEM RESPONSE TO SEVERE UPSETS; 12.1 Introduction; 12.2 Nature of system response to severe upsets; 12.2.1 System Response to Islanding Conditions; 12.2.2 Undergenerated Islands; 12.2.3 Overgenerated Islands; 12.2.4 Reactive Power Balance; 12.2.5 Power Plant Auxiliaries; 12.2.6 Power System Restoration; 12.3 Load Shedding; 12.4 Factors to be considered for Load Shedding Scheme; 12.4.1 Maximum Anticipated Overload; 12.4.2 Number of Load Shedding Steps; 12.4.3 Size of Load Shed at Each Step; 12.4.4 Frequency Setting; 12.4.5 Time Delay; 12.5 Rate of Frequency Decline; 12.6 Frequency Relays (81); 12.7 Islanding; 12.7.1 Issues with Islanding; 12.7.2 Methods of Islanding Detection; 12.8 Summary; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; References; CHAPTER 13: THEORY OF ARC INTERRUPTION; 13.1 Introduction; 13.2 Fundamental of Circuit breaking; 13.3 Arc Phenomenon; 13.4 Characteristic of arc; 13.5 Theory of Arc Quenching in ac circuit; 13.5.1 Restriking Voltage; 13.5.2 Arc Voltage; 13.5.3 Transient Restriking Voltage (TRV); 13.5.4 Rate of Rise of Restriking Voltage (RRRV); 13.5.5 Recovery Voltage; 13.6 Arc Interruption Theories; 13.6.1 High Resistance Interruption; 13.6.2 Low Resistance Interruption; 13.6.2.1 Slepian’s Theory (Race Theory); 13.6.2.2 Cassie’s Theory (Energy Balance Theory); 13.7 Factors Affecting RRRV, Recovery Voltage and TRV; 13.7.1 Power Factor of the Circuit; 13.7.2 Circuit Condition and Types of Fault; 13.7.3 Asymmetry of Short Circuit Current; 13.7.4 Short Line Fault; 13.8 Current Chopping (Interruption of Small Inductive Current); 13.9 Interruption of Capacitive Current; 13.10 Resistance Switching; 13.11 Theory of Arc Interruption in DC Circuit; 13.11.1 Circuit description; 13.11.2 Effect of circuit inductance; 13.12 Examples; 13.13 Summary; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; Unsolved Examples; References; CHAPTER 14: TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS; 14.1 Introduction; 14.2 Ratings of Circuit Breakers; 14.2.1 Rated Current and Rated Voltage; 14.2.2 Rated Breaking Capacity; 14.2.3 Rated Making Capacityty; 14.2.4 Short Time Ratingcity; 14.2.5 Rated Standard Duty Cycle; 14.3 Function of High Rating Circuit Breakers; 14.4 Low Voltage Circuit Breaker; 14.4.1 Switchese Circuit Breakers; 14.4.1.1 Load Break Switch; 14.4.1.2 Isolating Switchh; 14.4.2 Fuses; 14.4.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuses; 14.4.2.2 Materials of Fuse Element; 14.4.2.3 Properties of Fuse Element; 14.4.2.4 Characteristics of Fuse; 14.4.2.5 Kit-Kat Fuse; 14.4.2.6 High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Fuse; 14.4.2.7 Expulsion Type Fuse; 14.4.2.8 Liquid Quenched Fuse (LQF); 14.4.3 Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB); 14.4.4 Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCB); 14.5 High Voltage Circuit Breakers; 14.5.1 Air Break Circuit Breaker; 14.5.2 Oil Circuit Breaker; 14.5.2.1 Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers (BOCB); 14.5.2.2 Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers (MOCB); 14.5.3 Air-Blast Circuit Breaker; 14.5.4 Sulphur Hexafluoride (Sf6) Circuit Breaker; 14.5.4.1 Non-Puffer Type Sf6 Circuit Breaker; 14.5.4.2 Puffer Type Sf6 Circuit Breaker; 14.5.4.3 Self Blast Type Sf6 Circuit Breaker; 14.5.5 Vacuum Circuit Breaker; 14.5.6 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Circuit Breakers; 14.6 Maintenance of Circuit Breakers; 14.6.1 Maintenance of Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker; 14.6.2 Maintenance of High Voltage Circuit Breaker; 14.7 Testing of Circuit Breaker; 14.8 Examples; 14.9 Summary; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; References; CHAPTER 15: TESTING, COMMISSIONING AND MAINTENANCE OF RELAYS; 15.1 Introduction; 15.2 Type Tests; 15.2.1 Operating Value Test; 15.2.2 Operating Time Test; 15.2.3 Reset Value Test; 15.2.4 Reset Time Test; 15.2.5 Temperature Rise Test; 15.2.6 Contact Capacity test; 15.2.7 Overload Test; 15.2.8 Mechanical test; 15.3 Commissioning and Acceptance Tests; 15.3.1 Insulation Resistance Test; 15.3.2 Secondary Injection Test; 15.3.3 Primary Injection Test; 15.3.4 Tripping Test; 15.3.5 Impulse voltage Test; 15.4 Maintenance Tests; 15.4.1 Requirement of Routine Maintenance Test; 15.4.2 Frequency of Routine Maintenance; 15.4.3 Records of Commissioning and Maintenance; 15.5 Test setup of Different Types of Relays; 15.5.1 Overcurrent Relay Test Bench; 15.5.2 Overvoltage Relay Test Bench; 15.5.3 Biased Differential Relay Test Bench; 15.5.4 Distance Relay Test Bench; 15.6 Different Testing Methods:; 15.6.1 Steady State Testing; 15.6.2 Dynamic Testing; 15.6.3 System Model Testing; 15.7 Computer Based Relay Testing; 15.8 Summary; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; References; CHAPTER 16: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PROTECTIVE RELAYS; 16.1 Introduction; 16.2 Fault Detection, Classification and Location scheme; 16.3 Concept of Synchronized Phasor Measurement; 16.4 Concept of Wide Area Protection and Measurement; 16.5 Wavelet Transform based Algorithm; 16.6 Travelling Wave Based Scheme; 16.7 Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) Techniques in Protective Relays; 16.7.1 Neural Network based Scheme; 16.7.2 Fuzzy Logic based Scheme; 16.7.3 Expert System based Scheme; 16.7.4 Genetic Algorithm based Scheme; 16.8 Summary; Exercise; Multiple Choice Questions; References; CHAPTER 17: INTRODUCTION TO PSCAD; 17.1 Introduction; 17.2 Different Library Models; 17.2.1 Voltage Source Model; 17.2.1.1 Data Format for Internal Control; 17.2.1.2 Source Control Modes; 17.2.2 Transmission Lines; 17.2.3 Machines and Transformers; 17.2.4 On-Line Frequency Scanner (FFT); 17.2.5 Sequence Filter; 17.2.6 Protection Components; 17.2.7 Line to Ground Impedance; 17.2.8 Line to Line Impedance; 17.2.9 CSMF (Continuous System Model Functions); 17.2.10 Breakers; 17.2.11 Control Panels; 17.3 Making a Simple Circuit in PSCAD; 17.4 Case Study of Overcurrent Relay Coordination; 17.5 Case Study of Implementation of Distance Relaying Scheme; 17.5.1 EMTP/PSCAD Models; 17.5.2 Study of Simulation Case; 17.5.3 PSCAD View of Distance Relay; 17.5.3.1 Signal Processing Block; 17.5.3.2 Protection Scheme Block; 17.5.4 Phase ’A’ To Ground Fault; 17.5.5 Three Phase Fault; Tutorial-17.1; Tutorial-17.2; Tutorial-17.3; Annexure -A; Annexure -B; References; Appendices

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